A fundamental biological question is to understand how cell types and functions are determined by genomic and proteomic coding. A basic form of this question is to ask if small families of genes or proteins code for cell types. For example, it has been shown that the collection of homeodomain proteins can uniquely delineate all 118 neuron classes in the nematode C. elegans. However, unique characterization is neither robust nor rare. Our goal in this paper is to develop a rigorous methodology to characterize molecular codes. We show that in fact for information-theoretic reasons almost any sufficiently large collection of genes is able to disambiguate cell types, and that this property is not robust to noise. To quantify the discriminative properties of a molecular codebook in a more refined way, we develop new statistics - partition cardinality and partition entropy - borrowing ideas from coding theory. We prove these are robust to data perturbations, and then apply these in the C. elegans example and in cancer. In the worm, we show that the homeodomain transcription factor family is distinguished by coding for cell types sparsely and efficiently compared to a control of randomly selected family of genes. Furthermore, the resolution of cell type identities defined using molecular features increases as the worm embryo develops. In cancer, we perform a pan-cancer study where we use our statistics to quantify interpatient tumor heterogeneity and we identify the chromosome containing the HLA family as sparsely and efficiently coding for melanoma.